The economy serves as the foundation of a society and its resilience. Economic prosperity is essential for any nation to advance and properly care for its people. A nation’s power and prominence in world affairs are directly proportional to its economic power.
Profound Hindu knowledge and thought encourage and inspire us to prioritize the welfare of both the people and the state. It advocates for creating widespread prosperity so that everyone has sufficient resources to meet their needs with dignity. Therefore, the first Hindu Sutra, ‘धर्मस्य मूलं अर्थः’ (Dharmasya mūlam arthaḥ)—‘Prosperity for All’—emphasizes this principle.
धर्मार्थकामा: सममेव सेव्या ....
स उत्तमो योऽभिरतस्त्रिवर्गे॥40॥
Dharmārthakāmāḥ samameva sevyā ....
Sa uttamo yo’bhiratastrivarge ||40||2
धर्मं चार्थं च कामं च यथावद् वदतां वर।
विभज्य काले कालज्ञः सर्वान् सेवेत पण्डितः।।42।।
Dharmaṃ cāthermaṃ ca kāmaṃ ca yathāvad vadatāṃ vara.
Vibhajya kāle kālajñaḥ sarvān seveta paṇḍitaḥ ||42||3
समं वा त्रिवर्गमन्योन्यानुबन्धम्।
Samaṃ vā trivargamanyonyānubandham.4
Dharma, artha and kama are collectively known as Trivarga (grouping of three) or param Trivarga (Supreme grouping of three) and are inseparable from one another. These three should be pursued in harmony. A person who follows all three harmoniously is considered knowledgeable and a superior individual.
Dharma holds the highest position among dharma, artha and kama. One should pursue artha in accordance with dharma and fulfill kama within the boundaries of dharma. When a householder follows artha and kama in alignment with dharma, moksha is attained effortlessly. Moksha is the natural outcome of harmoniously adhering to dharma while pursuing artha and kama.
Dharma
Dharma is the greatest and most valuable contribution Hindus have made to humanity. Its ancient origins, profound utility and universal relevance inspire a deep sense of moral awareness in both individuals and society. To fully appreciate its significance, one must comprehend the true essence of dharma.
धारणाद् धर्ममित्याहु धर्मेण विधृता: प्रजाः।
यः स्याद् धारणसंयुक्तः स धर्म इति निश्चयः ।।11।।
Dhāraṇād dharma mityāhu dharmeṇa vidhṛtāḥ prajāḥ.
Yaḥ syād dhāraṇasaṃyuktaḥ sa dharma iti niścayaḥ ।।11।।5
धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: ।।67।।
Dharmo dhārayati prajāḥ ।।67।।6
धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: ।।9।।
Dharmo dhārayati prajāḥ ।।9।।7
धर्मेण धार्यते लोकः ।।234।।
Dharmeṇa dhāryate lokaḥ ।।234।।8
Dharma means ‘that which sustains’. It is what eternally sustains everything, including individuals, families, communities, societies, nature and both animate and inanimate entities.
The quality of a material is also called its dharma, such as the dharma of fire being warmness and the dharma of water being coldness.
In simple terms, the dharma of the head of the family is to care for the family; it is his duty and responsibility. The dharma of a police officer is to maintain law and order. The dharma of the head of state is to protect the state and take care of its people. The dharma of a teacher is to impart proper knowledge to students. The dharma of a farmer is to produce food, and the dharma of the sun is to provide light.
There is no alternative to the term ‘dharma’ because it is a non-translatable word. No equivalent in English or any other language captures the true essence of dharma. Therefore, dharma should simply be referred to as dharma.
It would be futile to attempt to provide a single definition of the word, as it can only be understood through its numerous meanings. These meanings encompass a wide range, allowing us to grasp the complexity of the term. For instance, the word ‘dharma’ can refer to justice, moral and ethical values, righteous conduct in all areas of life, pious obligations, duties and responsibilities, universal moral principles assisting other living beings and the natural qualities or duties of living beings.
Some of the Universal Principles of Dharma
धृति: क्षमा दमोऽस्तेयं शौचमिन्द्रियनिग्रह:।
धीर्विद्या सत्यमक्रोधो दशकं धर्मलक्षणम् ।।92।।
Dhṛtiḥ kṣamā damo’steyaṃ śaucamindriyanigrahaḥ.
Dhīrvidyā satyamakrodho daśakaṃ dharmalakṣaṇam. ।।92।।9
धृति (steadfastness), क्षमा (forgiveness), दम (continence), अस्तेय (non-stealing), शौच (purity), इन्द्रिय निग्रह (control of senses), धी (wisdom), विद्या (true knowledge), सत्यम (truth), और अक्रोध (non-anger). These are some of the universal principles that everybody should adopt.
Artha refers to wealth, riches, prosperity and resources.
Kama means worldly desire.
The Creation and Generation of Wealth and Prosperity Are Important Dharma Activity
अर्थ एव प्रधान इति कौटिल्यः, अर्थमूलौ हि धर्मकामाविति।
Artha eva pradhāna iti kauṭilyaḥ, arthamūlau hi dharmakāmāviti.10
आचार्य कौटिल्य का अभिमत है कि ‘धर्म, अर्थ और काम, इन तीनों में अर्थ प्रधन है,धर्म और काम अर्थ पर निर्भर हैं’।
Acharya Kautilya, a prominent ancient Hindu economist, political realist and philosopher, posited that the concept of ‘artha’ holds paramount significance among the trio of ‘dharma’, ‘artha’ and ‘kama’ in Hindu thought. In his seminal work, the Arthashastra, Kautilya elaborates on the multifaceted nature of artha, which encompasses wealth, prosperity and the economy.
Kautilya’s pragmatic approach and profound emphasis on material well-being and the pursuit of wealth are integral aspects of Hindu society. His assertion demonstrates a pragmatic understanding of societal order and emphasizes the central role of artha in shaping societal dynamics.
Moreover, it signifies a nuanced interplay between these three concepts. Kautilya argues that both dharma and kama are contingent upon artha. In other words, he suggests that without the proper acquisition of wealth and resources (artha), the pursuit of dharma and the fulfilment of desires (kama) would be challenging, if not impossible, to achieve.
धनाद्धर्मं ततः सुखम् ।।6।।
Dhanāddharmaṃ tataḥ sukham ।।6।।11
Wealth results in dharma, and then dharma brings happiness.
When a person possesses wealth, they are in a position to fulfil their duties and responsibilities towards themselves, their families and society as a whole. Wealth provides the means to perform dharma, and fulfilling one’s dharma leads to happiness and contentment.
धनात् स्रवति धर्मो हि धारणाद् वेति निश्चयः ।।18।।
Dhanāt sravati dharmo hi dhāraṇād veti niścayaḥ ।।18।।12
नरेन्द्र! धन से धर्म की उत्पत्ति होती है सबको धरण करने के कारण वह निश्चितरूप से धर्म कहा गया है।
Acquiring wealth through dharmic (righteous) means is considered important, as it entails recognizing the significance of material resources in fulfilling one’s duties and responsibilities within society.
धनेन जयते लोकावुभौ परमिमं तथा ।।43।।
Dhanena jayate lokāvubhau paramimaṃ tathā ।।43।।13
धन से मनुष्य इहलोक और परलोक दोनों पर विजय पाता है तथा सत्य और धन का भी सम्पादन कर लेता है,
It encompasses a profound understanding of the human condition and the pursuit of wealth. By acquiring wealth in this world through dharmic means and using it to serve people and society, one aligns with these principles.
धर्मश्चार्थेन महता शक्यो राजन् निषेवितुम् ।।48।।
Dharmaścārthena mahatā śakyo rājan niṣevitum ।।48।।14
‘महाराज! इस जगत् का मूल कारण धर्म ही है। इस जगत् में ध्र्म से बढ़कर दूसरी कोई वस्तु नहीं है। उस धर्म का अनुष्ठान भी महान् धन से ही हो सकता है।।48।।
With a substantial abundance of financial resources, fulfilling one’s moral duties and obligations in alignment with dharma can be effectively achieved or enhanced. Wealth can serve as a tool for carrying out one’s duties and responsibilities, supporting righteous actions and contributing positively to the world.
धनाद् धर्मः प्रवर्धते ।।22।।
Dhanād dharmaḥ pravardhate ।।22।।15
धन से ही धर्म की वृद्धि होती हैं।
Fulfilling one’s dharma is facilitated by having access to resources, which can serve as a means of upholding righteous conduct and promoting societal well-being. In other words, wealth enables individuals to fulfil their dharma more effectively.
योऽर्थो धर्मेण संयुक्तो धर्मो यश्चार्थसंयुतः ।।24।।
Yo’rtho dharmeṇa saṃyukto dharmo yaścārthasaṃyutaḥ ।।24।।16
जो धन धर्म से युक्त हो और जो धर्म धन से सम्पन्न हो।
The interdependent relationship between the two fundamental concepts of ‘dharma’ and ‘artha’ suggests that they are inseparable and mutually supportive. This implies that dharma and artha (wealth) are closely connected and cannot be considered separately. In this context, the pursuit of wealth should align with the principles of dharma.
धनमाहुः परं धर्मं धने सर्वं प्रतिष्ठितम् ।।23।।
Dhanamāhuḥ paraṃ dharmaṃ dhane sarvaṃ pratiṣṭhitam ।।23।।17
धन को उत्तम धर्म का साधक बताया गया है। धन में सब कुछ प्रतिष्ठित है।
Prosperity and material abundance are not only desirable but also integral to fulfilling one’s dharma. This implies that accumulating wealth ethically and using it judiciously can help manifest one’s dharma.
The Significance of Economic Prosperity in Societal Structure and Personal Well-being
Prosperity serves as the foundation upon which various facets of personal and societal life thrive. It enables individuals to access education, healthcare and other essential services, fostering overall development and societal progress.
A prosperous state looks after the welfare of its people by providing healthcare, education and other essential services. Economic stability offers a sense of security and freedom, empowering individuals to pursue their aspirations and contribute positively to society.
अर्थे सर्वे समारम्भाः समायत्ता न संशयः।।48।।
Arthe sarve samārambhāḥ samāyattā na saṃśayaḥ ।।48।।18
इसमें संदेह नहीं कि सरे कार्य धन के अधीन हैं।
The pivotal role of ‘artha’ in all undertakings underscores the undeniable significance of financial and material resources in achieving objectives—whether personal, societal or organizational. ‘Artha’ serves as the cornerstone for various pursuits, facilitating progress and sustenance. Whether pursuing ambitions, implementing plans or fostering growth, the availability and effective utilization of ‘artha’ are fundamental. Essentially, without wealth and resources, undertakings or initiatives may struggle, highlighting the essential nature of wealth and resources (artha).
अर्थार्थी पुरुषो राजन् बृहन्तं धर्ममिच्छति ।।31।।
Arthārthī puruṣo rājan bṛhantaṃ dharmamicchati ।।31।।19
राजन! धन कि इच्छा रखने वाला पुरुष महान धर्म कि अभिलाषा रखता है और कामार्थी मनुष्य धन चाहता है। जैसे धर्म से धन कि और धन से काम कि इच्छा करता है , उस प्रकार काम से किसी दूसरी वस्तु की इच्छा नहीं करता है।
Someone who seeks material wealth or prosperity (artha) in life is inherently inclined towards upholding dharma. The pursuit of material prosperity is considered a dharmic activity; therefore, the pursuit of material gain should be guided by the principles of dharma. This emphasizes the interconnectedness of worldly success and moral integrity.
सर्वथा धर्ममूलोऽर्थो धर्मश्चार्थपरिग्रहः।
इतरेतरयोर्नीतौ विद्धि मेघोदधी यथा ।।29।।
Sarvathā dharmamūlo’rtho dharmaścārthaparigrahaḥ.
Itaretarayornītau viddhi meghodadhī yathā ।।29।।20
‘अर्थ का कारण है धर्म और धर्म सिद्ध होता है अर्थ संग्रह से। जैसे मेघ से समुद्र की पुष्टि होती है और समुद्र से मेघ की पूर्ति। इस प्रकार धर्म और अर्थ को एक-दूसरे के आश्रित समझना चाहिये।।19।।
The profound connection between dharma and artha suggests that dharma is fundamental to acquiring and maintaining wealth. Furthermore, it emphasizes the inseparable relationship between the two, likening it to the interdependence of the ocean and clouds. Just as clouds cannot form without the ocean and yet return after rain to enrich it, wealth is generated to uphold and sustain dharma. Similarly, dharma facilitates the generation of wealth.
अर्थस्यावयवावेतौ धर्मकामाविति श्रुतिः।
अर्थसिद्ध्या विनिर्वृत्तावुभावेतौ भविष्यतः।।14।।
Arthasyāvayavāvetau dharmakāmāviti śrutiḥ.
Arthasiddhyā vinirvṛttāvubhāvetau bhaviṣyataḥ ।।14।।21
श्रुति का कथन है कि धर्म और काम अर्थ के ही दो अवयव हैं। अर्थ की सिद्धि से उन दोनों की भी सिद्धि हो जायगी।।14।।
The Vedas emphasize the importance of artha in enabling undertakings, stating that without it, Dharma and Kama remain unfulfilled.
The Vedas posit dharma and kama as integral components of artha, suggesting that the successful pursuit of wealth leads to the realization of both. Artha is depicted as a cornerstone that not only sustains life but also enables the practice of dharma and the pursuit of kama.
अर्थेभ्यो हि विवृद्धेभ्यः सम्भृतेभ्यस्ततस्ततः।
क्रियाः सर्वा प्रवर्तन्ते पर्वतेभ्य इवापगाः ।।16।।
Arthebhyo hi vivṛddhebhyaḥ sambhṛtebhyastatastataḥ.
Kriyāḥ sarvā pravartante parvatebhya ivāpagāḥ ।।16।।22
All kinds of meritorious acts (dharma) flow abundantly from great wealth, like a stream flowing down mountains.
धनाद्धि धर्मः स्रवति शैलादभि नदी यथा ।।23।।
Dhanāddhi dharmaḥ sravati śailādabhi nadī yathā ।।23।।23
निर्धन मनुष्य धार्मिक कृत्यों का अच्छी तरह अनुष्ठान नहीं कर सकता। जैसे पर्वत से नदी झरती रहती है, उसी प्रकार धन से धर्म का ड्डोत बहता रहता है।।23।।
The comparison of wealth to mountainous streams flowing down mountains to illustrate the flow of dharma is quite profound. Just as streams originate from mountains and continuously flow downwards, wealth can serve as the source from which acts of dharma naturally manifest.
Streams flow continuously down mountains, symbolizing the ongoing and consistent nature of dharma. Similarly, when acts of dharma stem from righteous wealth, they can have a positive impact on society by aiding communities and reducing suffering. Wealth empowers individuals to give to charity and serve others regularly, thus providing lasting benefits to society.
अर्थैरर्था निबध्यन्ते गजैरिव महागजाः ।।20।।
Arthairarthā nibadhyante gajairiva mahāgajāḥ ।।20।।24
जैसे जंगल में एक हाथी के पीछे बहुत-से हाथी चले आते हैं उसी प्रकार धन से ही धन बँधा चला आता है।।20।।
Wealth tends to attract more wealth, much like how elephants follow the paths of larger, more dominant elephants in their herds. Just as elephants are drawn to the power and leadership of the largest members of their group, financial success often begets further success.
In the realm of economics, this indicates that wealth attracts further wealth. Individuals with wealth tend to enjoy greater opportunities and resources for pursuing better investment prospects, which can result in higher returns on their investments.
अर्थाद् धर्मश्च कामश्च स्वर्गश्चैव नराधिप।
प्राणयात्रापि लोकस्य विना ह्यर्थं न सिद्ध्यति ।।17।।
Arthād dharmaśca kāmaśca svargaścaiva narādhipa.
Prāṇayātrāpi lokasya vinā hyarthaṃ na siddhyati ।।17।।25
नरेश्वर! धन से ही धर्म, काम और स्वर्ग की सिद्धि होती है। लोगों के जीवन का निर्वाह भी बिना धन के नहीं होता॥17॥
धर्मः कामश्च स्वर्गश्च हर्षः क्रोधः श्रुतं दमः।
अर्थादेतानि सर्वाणि प्रवर्तन्ते नराधिप ।।21।।
Dharmaḥ kāmaśca svargaśca harṣaḥ krodhaḥ śrutaṃ damaḥ.
Arthādetāni sarvāṇi pravartante narādhipa ।।21।।26
नरेश्वर! धन से धर्म का पालन, कामना की पूर्ति, स्वर्ग की प्राप्ति, हर्ष की वृद्धि, क्रोध की सफलता, शास्रों का श्रवण और अध्ययन तथा शत्रुओं का दमन - ये सभी कार्य सिद्ध होते हैं॥21॥
अर्थ इत्येव सर्वेषां कर्मणामव्यतिक्रमः।
न ह्यृतेऽर्थेन वर्तेते धर्मकामाविति श्रुतिः।।12।।
Artha ityeva sarveṣāṃ karmaṇāmavyatikramaḥ.
Na hyṛte’rthena vartete dharmakāmāviti śrutiḥ ।।12।।27
अर्थ ही समस्त कर्मों की मर्यादा के पालन में सहायक है। अर्थ के बिना धर्म औ काम भी सिद्ध नहीं होते, ऐसा श्रुति का कथन है॥12॥
The concepts of dharma, kama and heaven are intricately intertwined with artha, which serves as a foundational pillar for sustaining life in the world. Artha encompasses material prosperity and the resources necessary for existence. Without it, life would be unsustainable, lacking the means to fulfil essential needs.
Artha facilitates the practice of dharma, the pursuit of kama and the attainment of heaven. It acts as a catalyst for various aspects of life, including the fulfilment of desires, the cultivation of virtues such as self-control, and the pursuit of knowledge.
आसीनश्च शयानश्च विचरन्नपि वा स्थितः।
अर्थयोगं दृढं कुर्याद् योगैरुच्चावचैरपि ।।22।।
Āsīnaśca śayānaśca vicarannapi vā sthitaḥ.
Arthayogaṃ dṛḍhaṃ kuryād yogairuccāvacairapi ।।22।।28
नकुल-सहदेव बोले - महाराज! मनुष्य को बैठते, सोते, घूमते-फिरते अथवा खड़े होते समय भी छोटे-बड़े हर तरह के उपायों से धन की आय को सुदृढ़ बनाना चाहिये॥22॥
Regardless of our physical state or activity, the pursuit of artha remains an ethical constant. Whether we are actively engaged in the world or at rest, this pursuit persists. This principle applies universally, transcending individuals’ social status, occupation or background. Therefore, whether one is a labourer, an entrepreneur, a merchant, a farmer, a scholar or a ruler, the pursuit of material wealth should always be a motivating factor.
What Is the Purpose of Wealth Creation in Hindu Dharma?
शतहस्त समाहर सहस्रहस्त सं किर।
कृतस्य कार्यस्य चेह स्फातिं समावह॥5॥
śatahasta samāhara sahasrahasta saṃ kira|
kṛtasya kāryasya ceha sphātiṃ samāvaha॥5॥29
Create wealth with a hundred hands and share it with a thousand hands. By doing so, you will fulfil your bounden duty.
This means one should actively engage in creating wealth through hard work, innovation and entrepreneurship. However, true success is not only measured by the accumulation of wealth but also by generously sharing it with those in need. By broadly sharing one’s wealth and helping others, an individual fulfils their ethical and moral responsibilities. This approach underscores that while creating wealth is important, its ultimate purpose is to benefit and uplift society as a whole. In doing so, one honours their duty to contribute positively to the community and make a meaningful impact on many lives.
Hindu thought on wealth creation and its purpose differs substantially from other economic philosophies around the world.
अहं लक्ष्मीरहं भूतिः श्रीश्चाहं बलसूदन।
अहं श्रद्धा च मेधा च संनतिर्विजितिः स्थितिः ।।22।।
अहं धृतिरहं सिद्धिरहं त्विड् भूतिरेव च।
अहं स्वाहा स्वधा चैव संस्तुतिनियतिः स्मृतिः ।।23।।
Ahaṃ lakṣmīrahaṃ bhūtiḥ śrīścāhaṃ balasūdana.
Ahaṃ śraddhā ca medhā ca saṃnatirvijitiḥ sthitiḥ ।।22।।
Ahaṃ dhṛtirahaṃ siddhirahaṃ tviḍ bhūtireva ca.
Ahaṃ svāhā svadhā caiva saṃstutiniyatiḥ smṛtiḥ ।।23।।30
बलसूदन! मैं ही लक्ष्मी हूँ। मैं ही भूति हूँ और मैं ही श्री हूँ। मैं श्रद्धा , मेधा, संतान, विजिति, स्थिति, धृति, सिद्धि, कान्ति, समृद्धि, स्वाहा, स्वधा, संस्तुति, नियति और स्मृति हूँ॥22-23॥
यत्राहं तत्र मत्कान्ता मद्विशिष्टा मदर्पणाः ।।82।।
सप्त देव्यो जयाष्टम्यो वासमेष्यन्ति तेऽष्टधा।
आशाश्रद्धा धृतिः शान्तिर्विजितिः संनतिः क्षमा ।।83।।
अष्टमी वृत्तिरेतासां पुरोगा पाकशासन।
Yatrāhaṃ tatra matkāntā madviśiṣṭā madarpaṇāḥ ।।82।।
Sapta devyo jayāṣṭamyo vāsameṣyanti te’ṣṭadhā.
Āśāśraddhā dhṛtiḥ śāntirvijitiḥ saṃnatiḥ kṣamā ।।83।।
Aṣṭamī vṛttiretāsāṃ purogā pākaśāsana.31
जहाँ मैं रहूंगी, वहाँ सात देवियाँ और निवास करेेंगी, उन सबके आगे आठवीं जया देवी भी रहेंगी। ये आठों देवियाँ मुझे बहुत प्रिय हैं, मुझसे भी श्रेष्ठ हैं और मुझे आत्मसमर्पण कर चुकी हैं॥82॥
पाकशासन! उन देवियों के नाम इस प्रकार हैं - आशा, श्रद्धा, धृति, शान्ति, विजिति, संनति, क्षमा और आठवीं वृत्ति (जया)। ये आठवीं देवी उन सातों की अग्रगामिनी हैं॥
In this profound proclamation, Shri (Lakshmi), the embodiment of wealth, prosperity and abundance, asserts her identity as the personification of prosperity, dignity, intelligence, and faithfulness. Each attribute symbolizes a facet of life’s richness and depth, ranging from wealth and success to steadfastness and memory. Beyond personal qualities, Shri (Lakshmi) encompasses the very fabric of existence, from destiny and sacrifice to victory and peace. The presence of seven other goddesses reflects a collective devotion to Shri (Lakshmi), symbolizing harmonious unity in the pursuit of shared ideals. The mention of an eighth goddess signifies an ultimate aspiration towards completeness, where hope, faithfulness, forgiveness and victory converge at the pinnacle of fulfilment.
Enterprise and Efforts as Primary Factors in Wealth Creation
सत्त्वं हि मूलमर्थस्य वितथं यदतोऽन्यथा ।।64।।
Sattvaṃ hi mūlamarthasya vitathaṃ yadato’nyathā ।।64।।32
‘आत्मबल ही धन का मूल है, इसके विपरीत जो कुछ है, वह मिथ्या है़;
Self-confidence and courage are indispensable traits for entrepreneurs, as starting a business necessitates a profound belief in oneself and the fortitude to embrace risks. Entrepreneurs often confront uncertainty, financial hurdles and setbacks. Without self-confidence and courage, many aspiring entrepreneurs might never dare to embark on the journey of starting a business.
Furthermore, self-confidence plays a pivotal role for investors. The process of making investment decisions inherently involves risk, and having unwavering confidence in one’s abilities and judgements can lead to more assertive investment choices. Courageous investors are those who are willing to take calculated risks, potentially yielding higher returns.
In the economic domain, self-confidence and courage hold significant value, as they empower individuals to take risks, seize opportunities, foster innovation and persist in the face of adversity. These attributes are fundamental ingredients for wealth creation, both at the individual and societal levels.
विद्या तपो वा विपुलं धनं वा
सर्वं ह्येतद् व्यवसायेन शक्यम्।
बुद्ध्यायत्तं तन्निवसेद् देहवत्सु
तस्माद् विद्याद् व्यवसायं प्रभूतम् ।।45।।
Vidyā tapo vā vipulaṃ dhanaṃ vā
Sarvaṃ hyetad vyavasāyena śakyam.
Buddhyāyattaṃ tannivased dehavatsu
Tasmād vidyād vyavasāyaṃ prabhūtam ।।45।।33
विद्या, तप तथा प्रचुर धन - ये सब उद्योग से प्राप्त हो सकते हैं। वह उद्योग प्राणियों में बुद्धि के अधीन होकर रहता है; अत: उद्योग को ही समस्त कार्यों की सिद्धि का पर्याप्त साधन समझे॥45॥
The significance of hard work, undertaking and enterprise lies in their role as pathways to desirable outcomes like learning, penance and wealth. Engaging in these practices allows individuals to achieve material prosperity as well as spiritual growth and knowledge. Emphasizing their importance highlights their role as catalysts for personal development and success in both worldly and inner pursuits. Their multifaceted significance shapes one’s life and helps in achieving various aspirations.
अर्थो वा मित्रावर्गो वा ऐश्वर्यं वा कुलान्वितम्।
श्रिश्चापि दुर्लभा भोक्तुं तथैवाकृतकर्मभिः ।।15।।
artho vā mitrāvargo vā aiśvaryaṃ vā kulānvitam|
śriścāpi durlabhā bhoktuṃ tathaivākṛtakarmabhiḥ||15||34
जो पुरुषार्थ नहीं करते, वे धन, मित्रवर्ग, ऐश्वर्य, उत्तम कुल तथा दुर्लभ लक्ष्मी का भी उपयोग नहीं कर सकते॥15॥
Achieving wealth, building strong friendships and attaining prosperity require proactive engagement in undertaking and enterprise. This implies that merely desiring these outcomes is insufficient; one must actively pursue opportunities and take risks to realize them. Whether in business, personal relationships or any aspect of life, success often demands initiative and perseverance. The importance of effort and initiative in creating a fulfilling and prosperous life is emphasized, as passive wishing alone is unlikely to lead to significant achievements.
दक्षे नरे कर्मणि वर्तमाने ।।6।।
Dakṣe nare karmaṇi vartamāne ।।6।।35
Lakshmi, the embodiment of wealth, dwells in persons who are competent.
Wealth is attracted to individuals who possess competence, which encompasses not just skill or knowledge but also qualities like diligence, creativity and resourcefulness. This implies that those who demonstrate proficiency and capability in their endeavours tend to attract prosperity. Success and abundance are often earned through one’s abilities and efforts, supporting the belief that competence is key to achieving and maintaining wealth and prosperity in life.
नाकर्मशीले पुरुषे वसामि ।।7।।
Nākarmaśīle puruṣe vasāmi ।।7।।36
जो पुरुष अकर्मण्य, नास्तिक, वर्णसङ्कर, कृतघ्न, दुराचारी, क्रूर, चोर तथा गुरुजनों के दोष देखनेवाला हो उसके भीतर मैं निवास नहीं करती हूँ॥7॥
The profound idea that there is interconnectedness between action and outcome, as well as diligence and prosperity, serves as a guiding principle for both spiritual and worldly success. It urges individuals to transcend idleness and embrace a proactive and purposeful approach to life in order to attract wealth and achieve fulfilment in all its forms.
Daily Struggles and Challenges of Those Living in Poverty
नान्यद् दुःखतरं किञ्चिल्लोकेषु प्रतिभाति मे।
अर्थैर्विहीनः पुरुषः परैः सम्परिभूयते ।।20।।
Nānyad duḥkhataraṃ kiñcillokeṣu pratibhāti me.
Arthairvihīnaḥ puruṣaḥ paraiḥ samparibhūyate ।।20।।37
There is no more pitiable sight in the world than that of people destitute of wealth, struggling to make ends meet.
The profound and often heartbreaking challenges faced by individuals who lack financial resources and are entrenched in poverty speak of the poignant struggle they endure, highlighting the difficulties of navigating life. For those living in poverty, every day is a battle for survival, marked by relentless obstacles and uncertainties. This struggle involves not just material deprivation but also the emotional and psychological toll it takes on individuals and families.
नातः पापीयसीं काञ्चिदवस्थां शम्बरोऽब्रवीत् ।।22।।
Nātaḥ pāpīyasīṃ kāñcidavasthāṃ śambaro’bravīt ।।22।।38
जहाँ आज और कल सबेरे के लिये भोजन नहीं दिखायी देता,
The profound impact poverty can have on an individual’s life is significant. Poverty not only takes away material possessions but also diminishes dignity, opportunity and hope, which can perpetuate a cycle of disadvantage. Beyond material deprivation, poverty inflicts psychological and emotional distress, eroding self-worth and mental well-being.
मृता ये त्वधाना नराः।।23।।
Mṛtā ye tvadhānā narāḥ ।।23।।39
दारिद्रयं खलु पुरुषस्य जीवितं मरणम् ।।257।।
Dāridrayaṃ khalu puruṣasya jīvitaṃ maraṇam ।।257।।40
People who do not possess wealth often struggle to thrive in society, feeling as if they are like the walking dead.
The harsh reality for individuals without financial means portrays their struggle to flourish in society. Lacking wealth, they often encounter barriers that hinder their progress, leading to feelings of alienation and invisibility. This imagery underscores the profound societal challenges faced by those who lack economic resources.
Wealth Loss Can Diminish and Destroy Intelligence
अर्थेन हि विहीनस्य पुरुषस्याल्पमेधसः।
विच्छिद्यन्ते क्रियाः सर्वा ग्रीष्मे कुसरितो यथा ।।18।।
Arthena hi vihīnasya puruṣasyālpamedhasaḥ.
Vicchidyante kriyāḥ sarvā grīṣme kusarito yathā ।।18।।41
जैसे गर्मी में छोटी-छोटी नदियाँ सूख जाती हैं, उसी प्रकार धनहीन हुए मन्दबुद्धि मनुष्य की सारी क्रियाएँ छिन्न-भिन्न हो जाती हैं॥18॥
The lack of wealth can severely hinder an individual’s ability to pursue undertakings and take action. Financial resources are often essential for implementing plans and ideas. Furthermore, without wealth, one’s intelligence may appear diminished. Essentially, this passage underscores the significant role of wealth in enabling proactive endeavours and realizing intellectual potential. It highlights the interconnectedness of financial stability and personal development.
The Characteristics of a Prosperous State
तुष्टाः कृषीवलाः ।।77।।
Tuṣṭāḥ kṛṣīvalāḥ ।।77।।42
Farmers should be content and satisfied in the state.
Farmers should feel content and satisfied with their agricultural endeavours within the state’s policies, infrastructure and support systems.
सीताध्यक्षः कृषितन्त्रशुल्बवृक्षायुर्वेदज्ञस्तज्ज्ञसखो वा सर्वधान्यपुष्पफलशाककन्दमूलवाल्लिक्यक्षौमकार्पास-बीजानि यथा कालं गृह्णीयात् ।
Sītādhyakṣaḥ kṛṣitantraśulbavṛkṣāyurvedajñastajjñasakho vā sarvadhānyapuṣpaphalaśākakandamūlavāllikyakṣaumakārpāsa-bījāni yathā kālaṃ gṛhṇīyāt.43
कृषि-विभाग के अध्यक्ष (सीताध्यक्ष) को यह आवश्यक है कि वह कृषिशास्त्र, शुल्बशास्त्र (पैमाइस) और वृक्ष-विज्ञान की पूरी जानकारी हासिल करें, अथवा इन सभी विद्याओं के विशेषज्ञों को अपना सहायक बनाकर यथासमय अन्न, फूल, फल, शाक, कंद, मूल, सन, जूट और कपास आदि के बीजों का संग्रह करे।
As the leader of the agriculture department, it’s crucial for the individual to possess a deep understanding of agricultural science and land surveying. This expertise allows them to make informed decisions regarding farming practices, land management and resource allocation. Moreover, they must assemble a proficient team of assistants who specialize in various aspects of agriculture, ensuring a comprehensive approach. One of their key responsibilities involves overseeing the systematic collection and preservation of seeds essential for various crops such as grains, fruits, tubers, vegetables and cotton. This ensures the continuity of agricultural productivity and contributes to food security.
कच्चिन्न भक्तं बीजं च कर्षकस्यावसीदति।
प्रत्येकं च शतं वृद्ध्या ददास्यृणमनुग्रहम् ।।79।।
Kaccinna bhaktaṃ bījaṃ ca karṣakasyāvasīdati.
Pratyekaṃ ca śataṃ vṛddhyā dadāsyṛṇamanugraham ।।79।।44
तुम्हारे राज्य के किसान का अन्न या बीज तो नष्ट नहीं होता? क्या तुम प्रत्येक किसान पर अनुग्रह करके उसे एक रुपया सैकड़े ब्याज पर ऋण देते हो? ।।89।।
For strong agricultural support from the state, it is essential to protect farmers’ resources, particularly seeds and food grains, to sustain agricultural productivity. Additionally, offering loans to farmers at a minimal interest rate of one per cent is proposed as a means of providing financial stability and enabling investments in farming practices. This approach aims to alleviate financial burdens on farmers while fostering agricultural growth, ultimately contributing to the overall welfare of the agricultural sector and the nation.
कच्चिद् राष्ट्रे तडागानि पूर्णानि च बृहन्ति च।
भागशो विनिविष्टानि न कृषिर्देवमातृका ।।78।।
Kaccid rāṣṭre taḍāgāni pūrṇāni ca bṛhanti ca.
Bhāgaśo viniviṣṭāni na kṛṣirdevamātṛkā ।।78।।45
क्या तुम्हारे राज्य के सभी भागों में जल से भरे हुए बड़े-बड़े तालाब बनवाये गये हैं? केवल वर्षा के पानी के भरोसे ही तो खेती नहीं होती है? ।।78।।
The importance of water availability for agriculture cannot be overstated. If there’s a shortage of rainfall, these reservoirs serve as a backup water source for irrigation, ensuring that crops have enough water to grow and thrive. This proactive approach helps safeguard against crop failure and economic losses that can result from drought conditions.
अकृषतामाच्छिद्यान्येभ्यः प्रयच्छेत्। ग्रामभृतकवैदेह वा कृषेयुः।
अकृषन्तोऽपहीनं दद्युः। धान्यपशुहिरण्यैश्चैनानुगृह्णीयात्। तान्यनु सुखेन दद्युः।
Akṛṣatāmācchidyānyebhyaḥ prayacchet. grāmabhṛtakavaideha vā kṛṣeyuḥ.
Akṛṣanto’pahīnaṃ dadyuḥ. dhānyapaśuhiraṇyaiścainānugṛhṇīyāt. tānyanu sukhena dadyuḥ.46
किन्तु ऐसी ऊसर या बंजर जमीन जिसको किसान ने अपने श्रम से खेती योग्य बनाया है, राजा को चाहिए कि उसे कभी भी वापिस न ले, ऐसी जमीन पर किसानों को पूर्ण अधिकार प्राप्त होना चाहिए। यदि कोई किसान किसी खेती योग्य भूमि को बिना जोते-बोये परती ही डाले रहता है तो राजा को चाहिए कि ऐसे किसान से उस भिूम को छीन कर किसी जरूरतमंद दूसरे किसान को दे दे। ऐसे जरूरतमंद किसान के न मिलने पर गाँव का मुखिया या व्यापारी उस जमीन पर खेती करे। खेती करने की शर्त पर यदि कोई जमीन को ले और उसमें खेती न करे तो उससे उसका हर्जाना वसूल करना चाहिए। राजा को चाहिए कि वह अÂ, बीज, बैल और धन आदि देकर किसानों की सहायता करता रहे और किसानों को भी चाहिए कि फसल कट जाने पर सुविधानुसार धीरे-धीरे वे उधार ली हुई वस्तुओं को राजा को वापिस कर दें।
कच्चित् स्वनुष्ठिता तात वार्ता ते साधुभिर्जनैः।
वार्तायां संश्रितस्तात लोकोऽयं सुखमेधते ।।80।।
kaccit svanuṣṭhitā tāta vārtā te sādhubhirjanaiḥ.
vārtāyāṃ saṃśritastāta loko’yaṃ sukhamedhate ।।80।।47
तात! तुम्हारे राष्ट्र में अच्छे पुरुषों द्वारा वार्ता, कृषि, गोरक्षा तथा व्यापार का काम अच्छी तरह किया जाता है न? क्योंकि उपर्युक्त वार्तावृत्ति पर अवलम्बित रहने वाले लोग ही सुखपूर्वक उन्नती करते हैं।।80।।
The crucial role of hardworking and morally upright individuals in advancing the sectors of agriculture and commerce cannot be overstated. The success and well-being of a society hinge upon the dedication and integrity of its members within these sectors. Agriculture sustains the population with food and resources, while commerce fuels economic growth and stability. Together, these sectors form the foundation upon which a prosperous and content community can thrive, underscoring the interconnectedness of diligence, virtue and societal prosperity.
In Hindu society, farmers and businessmen are regarded as diligent and principled members of the communities. They play vital roles in sustaining society by sharing the responsibilities of providing food, managing commerce and fostering stability. Both groups should offer mutual care and be cared for, protected and supported by the state and society. Unfortunately, in the modern socialist ideological environment, these two groups are often set against each other as conflicting and opposing factions.
The Attributes of a Prosperous State
व्याधितो वा कृशो वापि तस्मिन् नाभृन्नरः क्वचित् ।।15।।
Vyādhito vā kṛśo vāpi tasmin nābhṛnnaraḥ kvacit ।।15।।48
उनके राज्य में कहीं कोई भी कृपण, दुर्गतिग्रस्त, रोगी अथवा दुर्बल मनुष्य नहीं दृष्टिगोचर होता था।।15।।
The importance of prioritizing the well-being of a state’s residents cannot be overstated. A population’s strength and vitality are crucial elements for the prosperity and stability of a society. By emphasizing the necessity of good health and the absence of illness, it suggests that adequate nutrition is essential for societal advancement. Essentially, a healthy and well-nourished population can contribute more effectively to the economy, maintain social cohesion, and pursue personal and collective goals. This fosters overall progress and development within the state.
रत्नैर्धनैश्च पशुभिः सस्यैश्चापि पृथग्विधैः ।।14।।
नगरं विषयश्चास्य प्रतिपूर्णस्तदाभवत्।
Ratnairdhanaiśca paśubhiḥ sasyaiścāpi pṛthagvidhaiḥ ।।14।।
Nagaraṃ viṣayaścāsya pratipūrṇastadābhavat.49
उनका नगर और राज्य रत्न, धन, पशु तथा भाँति-भाँति के धान्यों से उन दिनों भरा-पूरा रहता था।।14।।
The prosperity and abundance that should permeate states are crucial for the flourishing economies of cities, towns and villages, envisioning them as bustling hubs of wealth and resources. The inclusion of wealth, gems, jewellery, cattle, grains and provisions highlights a diverse range of riches, suggesting a well-rounded and thriving economy. Such prosperity not only represents material wealth but also implies the overall welfare and stability of the communities within these areas, fostering a vision of abundance and fulfilment for all inhabitants.
Entrepreneurs and Farmers Should Be Cared for and Protected by the State
गोमिनो धनिनश्चैव परिपाल्या विशेषतः ।।17।।
Gomino dhaninaścaiva paripālyā viśeṣataḥ ।।17।।50
‘युधिष्ठिर! शूरवीरों, श्रेष्ठ पुरुषों तथा विद्वानों का सत्का करना बहुत आवश्यक है। अधिक-से-अधिक गौएँ रखने वाले धनी वैश्यों की विशेष रूप से रक्षा करनी चाहिये।।17।।
The state has a responsibility to provide support and assistance to both farmers and entrepreneurs. This support encompasses various forms of aid, including financial assistance, access to resources, regulatory support, and policies and measures that make farming attractive and profitable while promoting entrepreneurship and business growth, as well as infrastructure development. By prioritizing the well-being of these key economic contributors, the state aims to foster a conducive environment for agricultural, entrepreneurial and commercial activities to thrive. Ultimately, such measures are designed to ensure the sustainability and prosperity of these vital sectors, thereby benefiting the overall economy and society at large.
In Hindu society, the farming profession is highly esteemed and respectfully referred to as ‘annadata’, which means ‘provider of food’. Farming is regarded as a vital enterprise (vanijya), and both agriculture and entrepreneurship are seen as integral to the role of the cultivator.
Entrepreneurs are respected and addressed honourifically as ‘Shreshthi’ in Sanskrit, meaning ‘fine people’. Consequently, in various regional languages of Bharat, Shreshthi has several variations: ‘Shreshtha’ in Hindi and Nepali, ‘Sethi’ in Punjabi, ‘Sethji’ in Rajasthani, ‘Seth’ in Gujarati, ‘Shetty’ in the South and Western regions (Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana), and ‘Chetty’ or ‘Chettiar’ in Tamil.
नमो॑ म॒न्त्रिणे॑ वाणि॒जाय॒ ।।19।।
namo mantriṇe vāṇijāya ||19||51
Salutations to expert and capable entrepreneurs.
Respect and honour to cultivator, intelligent, capable entrepreneurs and business professionals.
Recognizing and respecting capable and intelligent entrepreneurs and business professionals means acknowledging the dedication, vision and resilience they demonstrate in their fields. Such individuals often possess a unique blend of creativity, strategic thinking, innovation and leadership qualities, enabling them to transform ideas into successful ventures. They navigate complex challenges, adapt to market changes and maintain a strong sense of ethical responsibility, all while fostering growth, building teams and creating value. By combining creativity with strategic thinking, they play a pivotal role in shaping industries and advancing society.
Their impact extends beyond mere business success; they contribute to society by driving economic progress, generating employment and inspiring others to pursue entrepreneurial aspirations.
In Hindu society, both farmers and entrepreneurs are respected, regarded and valued for their contributions to food grain production, wealth generation and employment creation, which make the country self-reliant and strong. A country that does not respect its farmers and entrepreneurs will never progress or become strong.
सत्याचारास्तु धनिका व्यवहारे हता यदि।
राजा समुद्धरेत्तांस्तु तथाऽन्यांश्च कृषिबलान् ।।83।।
Satyācārāstu dhanikā vyavahāre hatā yadi.
Rājā samuddharettāṃstu tathā’nyāṃśca kṛṣibalān ।।83।।52
सत्याचरणशील कोई धनिक अथवा किसान व्यवहार (लेन-देन) के नाते यदि विपत्ति में पड़कर हीनावस्था को प्राप्त हो गया हो तो राजा उसकी सहायता करके उसका उद्धार कर दे।
In times of economic hardship, even the most diligent and honest individuals, such as entrepreneurs and farmers, may find themselves struggling. Whether due to unforeseen circumstances, market instability or natural disasters, these hardworking members of society can face significant challenges. It is during these moments of adversity that the state has a responsibility to provide support and assistance. By offering aid and resources to meet their needs, the state can help alleviate their burdens and enable them to overcome their difficulties, ensuring the resilience and stability of both the individuals and the broader economy.
The State Should Not Disrupt Day-to-Day Business Activities
नावो न सन्ति सेनाया बह्व्यस्तारयितुं तथा।
वणिजामुपधातं च कथमस्मद्विधश्चरेत् ।।28।।
Nāvo na santi senāyā bahvyastārayituṃ tathā.
Vaṇijāmupadhātaṃ ca kathamasmadvidhaścaret ।।28।।53
‘इतनी बड़ी सेना को पार उतारने के लिये हम लोगों के पास अधिक नौकाएँ भी नहीं हैं। (यदि कहें, व्यापारियों के जहाजों से काम लिया जाय, तो) मेरे - जैसा पुरुष अपने स्वार्थ के लिये व्यापारियों के व्यवसाय को हानि कैसे पहुँचा सकता है?।।28।।
A compelling discussion unfolded as Shri Rama, leading his army, endeavoured to cross the sea towards the shores of Lanka. Expressing apprehension, Shri Rama remarked, ‘Although our army is substantial, we face a shortage of boats to navigate this vast ocean’. Furthermore, he articulated his hesitation to impede the routine operations of merchants, stating, ‘I am reluctant to disrupt the customary affairs of the business community’.
Shri Rama demonstrates his ethical principles and respect for the livelihoods of others by expressing reluctance to disrupt the routine operations of merchants. He acknowledges that interfering with merchants would disrupt their business activities, causing inconvenience and potentially harming their livelihoods. This reflects Shri Rama’s sense of fairness and consideration for others, even in the midst of his military campaign.
A state should avoid interfering in the daily activities of entrepreneurs, reserving the use of their resources only for emergency situations, such as war or natural calamities, rather than for regular circumstances.
The Strength of the Military Is Contingent upon the Economy
राज्ञः कोशबलं मूलं कोशमूलं पुनर्बलम् ।।35।।
Rājñaḥ kośabalaṃ mūlaṃ kośamūlaṃ punarbalam ।।35।।54
अकोशस्य कुतो बलम् ।।4।।
Akośasya kuto balam ।।4।।55
राजा की जड़ है सेना और खजाना। इनमें भी खजाना ही सेना की जड़ है।
बलमूलो भवेत्कोशः कोशमूलं बलं स्मृतम् ।।14।।
Balamūlo bhavetkośaḥ kośamūlaṃ balaṃ smṛtam ।।14।।56
कोश का मूल सेना है अर्थात् सेना के द्वारा कोश संग्रह होता है और सेना का मूल कोश है
The essential relationship between the treasury and the military within a state’s power structure suggests that a state’s stability and might are deeply intertwined with its financial resources and military capabilities. The treasury, symbolizing economic stability and resources, serves as the backbone upon which the military relies for defence-related needs. A well-funded treasury not only supports military operations but also enhances their effectiveness, ensuring the state’s ability to assert influence and protect its interests both domestically and internationally.
How Should a State Protect Its Prosperity?
दण्डेन रक्ष्यते धान्यं धनं दण्डेन रक्ष्यते ।।14।।
Daṇḍena rakṣyate dhānyaṃ dhanaṃ daṇḍena rakṣyate ।।14।।57
दण्ड से धान्य की रक्षा होती है, उसी से धन की भी रक्षा होती है_
Law enforcement plays a crucial role in safeguarding the wealth and prosperity of both individuals and the state through various means. First, it ensures public safety and security, creating an environment conducive to economic activities and investments. By combating crimes such as theft, fraud and organized crime, law enforcement safeguards individuals’ assets and businesses, fostering economic stability and growth. Additionally, it upholds the rule of law, ensuring fair and equitable enforcement of regulations and contracts, which is essential for maintaining trust and confidence in the economic system. Overall, law enforcement serves as a cornerstone in safeguarding the socioeconomic fabric of society and protecting the interests of both individuals and the state.
How Should Taxation Be Charged and Collected
यथैव पूर्णादुदधेः स्यन्दन्त्यापो दिशो दश।
एवं राजकुलाद् वित्तं पृथिवीं प्रति तिष्ठति ।।32।।
Yathaiva pūrṇādudadheḥ syandantyāpo diśo daśa
Evaṃ rājakulād vittaṃ pṛthivīṃ prati tiṣṭhati ।।32।।58
प्राचीनकाल में जो राजर्षि हो गये हैं, जो कि इस समय स्वर्ग में निवास करते हैं, उनके मत में भी राजा-धर्म की ऐसी ही व्याख्या की गयी है जैसे भरे हुए महासागर मेघ के रूप में उठा हुआ जल सम्पूर्ण दिशाओं में बरस जाता है, उसी प्रकार धन राजाओं के यहाँ से निकलकर सम्पूर्ण पृथ्वी में फैल जाता है।।32।।
Taxation is akin to the moisture of the earth evaporated by the sun, only to be later returned as fertilizing rain. Taxation mirrors the natural cycle of moisture within the ecosystem. Just as the sun evaporates moisture from the earth’s surface, taxes are gathered from individuals and businesses. Similarly, akin to rain replenishing the soil, these taxes are subsequently redistributed by the state to support public services such as healthcare, education, security and infrastructure, thereby benefiting society as a whole. These benefits might include improved public services, job creation, business opportunities and overall economic growth. This underscores the cyclical essence of taxation, wherein the resources extracted are eventually reinvested back into the community for its advancement and prosperity.
लोके चायव्ययौ दृष्ट्वा बृहद्वृक्षमिवास्रवत् ।।9।।
Loke cāyavyayau dṛṣṭvā bṛhadvṛkṣamivāsravat ।।9।।59
लोगों के आय-व्यय देखकर ताड़के वृक्ष से निकालने की भाँति उनसे धनरूपी रस से (अर्थात् जैसे उस रस के लिये पेड़ का काट नहीं दिया जाता, उसी प्रकार प्रजाका उच्छेद न करे)।।9।।
The analogy of taxation to extracting juice from a Palmyra tree conveys the idea that while taxation is necessary for the sustenance of a state; it should be done with care and consideration. Just as one wouldn’t destroy a tree while collecting its juice, taxes should not harm people or cripple their livelihoods. Instead, taxation should be approached with a balanced perspective, examining both the resources available to people and the needs of the state. By understanding the income and expenditure of people, taxes can be levied in a manner that is fair and sustainable, akin to extracting juice from a Palmyra tree without causing harm to it.
विक्रयं क्रयध्वानं भक्तं च सपरिच्छदम् ।
योगक्षेमं च सम्प्रेक्ष्य वणिजां कारयेत् करान् ।।13।।
Vikrayaṃ krayadhvānaṃ bhaktaṃ ca saparicchadam
Yogakṣemaṃ ca samprekṣya vaṇijāṃ kārayet karān ।।13।।60
राजा को मालकी खरीद - बिक्री, उसके मँगाने का खर्च उसमें काम करनेवाले, नौकरों के वेतन, बचत और योग-क्षेम के निर्वाह की ओर दृष्टि रखकर ही व्यापारियों पर कर लगाना चाहिये।।13।।
उत्पत्तिं दानवृत्तिं च शिल्पं सम्प्रेक्ष्य चासकृत्।
शिल्पं प्रति करानेवं शिल्पिनः प्रति कारयेत् ।।14।।
Utpattiṃ dānavṛttiṃ ca śilpaṃ samprekṣya cāsakṛt
Śilpaṃ prati karānevaṃ śilpinaḥ prati kārayet ।।14।।61
इसी तरह माल की तैयारी, उसकी खपत तथा शिल्प की उत्तम-मध्यम आदि श्रेणियों का बार-बार निरीक्षण करके शिल्प एवं शिल्पकारों पर कर लगावे।।14।।
The state must carefully consider various factors before imposing taxes on businesses and industrialists. A comprehensive analysis should encompass economic elements such as the cost of raw materials, sales and purchases of goods, transportation costs, employee salaries, production expenses, product quality and the application of technology. By evaluating these aspects, the state can assess the overall health of businesses and impose taxes that support their survival and growth.
Furthermore, it is important to structure taxes to support existing industries, stimulate the development of new ones and encourage the growth of individual entrepreneurs. This approach seeks to balance the state’s revenue requirements with the need to create an environment conducive to economic prosperity and entrepreneurial activity.
उत्पन्नानकच्चिदाढ्यस्य दरिद्रस्य च भारत।
अर्थान्न मिथ्या पश्यन्ति तवामात्या हृता धनैः ।।107।।
utpannānakaccidāḍhyasya daridrasya ca bhārata|
arthānna mithyā paśyanti tavāmātyā hṛtā dhanaiḥ|| 107||62
Some entrepreneurs, both poor and wealthy, have become prosperous in a short period. Ministers and tax collectors should not be misled by others into believing that their success was achieved through improper means.
Some entrepreneurs, regardless of their initial financial status—whether poor or wealthy—have managed to achieve remarkable prosperity within a short span of time. Their success may be attributed to factors such as innovative business strategies, market opportunities, perseverance, or sheer hard work. However, it is crucial for ministers and tax collectors to exercise caution and not be swayed by hearsay, unfounded suspicions, or misleading accusations. They should avoid assuming that such rapid financial growth is necessarily the result of unethical practices, corruption, or tax evasion. Instead, a fair and objective assessment should be made, ensuring that legitimate success is recognized and not unfairly scrutinized.
कच्चिदभ्यागता दूराद्वणिजो लाभकारणात्।
यथोक्तमवहार्यन्ते शुल्कं शुल्कोपजीविभिः ।।115।।
kaccidabhyāgatā dūrādvaṇijo lābhakāraṇāt|
yathoktamavahāryante śulkaṃ śulkopajīvibhiḥ ||115||63
Entrepreneurs who have travelled from far away to conduct business and earn a profit should be treated fairly. State tax collectors should collect the appropriate amount of tax, not more than necessary.
कच्चित्ते पुरुषा राजन्पुरे राष्ट्रे च मानिताः।
उपानयन्ति पण्यानि उपाधाभिरवञ्चिताः ।।116।।
kaccitte puruṣā rājanpure rāṣṭre ca mānitāḥ|
upānayanti paṇyāni upādhābhiravañcitāḥ ||116||64
Entrepreneurs and traders who bring valuable goods into the state deserve respect and honour. Tax collectors should not deceive or cheat them.
Taxation in Underdeveloped Regions Hinders Economic Growth
कच्चित् ते वणिजो राष्ट्रे नोद्विजन्ति करार्दिताः।
क्रीणन्तो बहुनाल्पेन कान्तारकृतविश्रमाः ।।23।।
Kaccit te vaṇijo rāṣṭre nodvijanti karārditāḥ.
Krīṇanto bahunālpena kāntārakṛtaviśramāḥ ।।23।।65
ऊँचे या नीचे भाव से माल खरीदने वाले और व्यापार के लिये दुर्गम प्रदेशों में विचरनेवाले वैश्य तुम्हारे राज्य में करके भारी भार से पीड़ित हो उद्विग्न तो नहीं होते हैं? ।।23।।
The fair treatment of entrepreneurs and industrialists operating in challenging environments within a state is crucial. These individuals exert significant effort in regions that may lack infrastructure or face instability. Heavy taxation could further burden them, potentially stifling economic activity and inhibiting growth. Therefore, it is suggested that tax policies should be mindful of the context in which businesspeople and industrialists operate, aiming to support rather than hinder their endeavours in such areas to foster economic resilience and development.
Taxation and the Globalization of Trade and Commerce
परभूमिजं पण्यमनुग्रहेणावाहयेत्। नाविकसार्थवाहेभ्यश्च परिहारमायतिक्षमं दद्यात्।
Parabhūmijaṃ paṇyamanugraheṇāvāhayet.
nāvikasārthavāhebhyaśca parihāramāyatikṣamaṃ dadyāt.66
विदेशी माल को मँगाने में कर आदि को कुछ रियायत होनी चाहिए। नाव और जहाज आदि से माल मँगाने वाले व्यापारियों पर राजकर की छूट होनी चाहिए। विदेश से आये व्यापारियों को भी राजा बिना ही अभियोग (प्रतिषेध) के ट्टण देने की व्यवस्था करे_
महोपकारमुच्छुल्कं कुर्याद्वीजं तु दुर्लभम् ।।
Mahopakāramucchulkaṃ kuryādvījaṃ tu durlabham.67
There are goods that are not available within the state and are procured with difficulty from foreign countries; taxes should not be imposed on the import of such goods.
To foster economic growth and availability for consumers, it’s imperative to import goods that aren’t locally available, incentivizing this process through tax discounts and waived customs duties. This strategy promotes international trade, expands consumer choices and ensures access to a diverse range of products. By eliminating barriers to importation, such as high taxes and customs fees, countries can stimulate domestic demand, encourage competition and facilitate the flow of goods across borders, ultimately contributing to a more dynamic and prosperous marketplace.
Prohibiting Taxation of Farmers and the General Population Is Essential
कच्चित् कृषिकरा राष्ट्रं न जहत्यतिपीडिताः ।।24।।
Kaccit kṛṣikarā rāṣṭraṃ na jahatyatipīḍitāḥ ।।24।।68
Farmers should not be burdened and oppressed by excessive taxes.
Farmers, as stewards of the land, play a vital role in sustaining communities and ensuring food security. However, their livelihoods are often precarious, reliant on unpredictable weather patterns and uncertain markets. Excessive taxation exacerbates these challenges, placing undue strain on already limited resources. Such burdens hinder agricultural innovation and investment, stifling the potential for growth and sustainability in the sector. By alleviating the tax burden on farmers, states can foster an environment conducive to agricultural prosperity, empowering farmers to thrive and contribute meaningfully to society’s well-being.
अर्थमूलोऽपि हिंसां च कुरुते स्वयमात्मनः।
करैरशास्त्रदृष्टैर्हि मोहात् सम्पीडयन् प्रजाः ।।5।।
Arthamūlo’pi hiṃsāṃ ca kurute svayamātmanaḥ.
Karairaśāstradṛṣṭairhi mohāt sampīḍayan prajāḥ ।।5।।69
The state should not oppress its people by extracting excessive taxes from them as this undermines the prescribed rules and ultimately leads to the destruction of the state.
Taxes are crucial for financing essential services such as infrastructure, healthcare, education, and defence by the state. However, when state authority is unjustly exercised through oppressive and unfair tax policies that place an undue burden on the populace, it contradicts established principles or norms within a society, including legal frameworks and constitutions for both the government and its people. Excessive taxation can lead to the erosion of public trust in the government, economic stagnation, social unrest, and ultimately the collapse or weakening of the state. When people feel excessively burdened by taxes without seeing commensurate benefits, or when taxes are perceived as unfair, it can undermine the stability and legitimacy of the government. While taxation is necessary for the functioning of a state, it must be fair and reasonable. Excessive taxation that oppresses the people violates established rules of governance and can have detrimental consequences for the state’s stability and longevity.
The Maximum Limit of Taxation
आददीत बलिं चापि प्रजाभ्यः कुरुनन्दन।
स षड्भागमपि प्राज्ञस्तासामेवाभिगुप्तये ।।25।।
Ādadīta baliṃ cāpi prajābhyaḥ kurunandana.
Sa ṣaḍbhāgamapi prājñastāsāmevābhiguptaye ।।25।।70
The state should collect only one-sixth of its people’s income as taxes to fulfil its duties and responsibilities for their welfare and protection.
यो हरेद् बलिषड्भागम् ।।11।।
Yo hared baliṣaḍbhāgam ।।11।।71
A state should take only one-sixth of people’s income as taxes.
It is proposed that within a state, the government should collect approximately one-sixth of people’s income as taxes, reflecting a comparatively lighter tax burden. The primary aim of taxation is to enable the government to fulfil essential responsibilities including public services such as education, healthcare, infrastructure, and defence, as well as ensuring the safety and welfare of its people. This approach advocates for a restrained tax burden to support critical government functions such as welfare and protection. By adhering to this principle, a state aims to strike a balance between financing its operations and safeguarding people’s financial independence. Allowing people to retain a significant portion of their earnings promotes economic liberty while securing necessary funds for public services and infrastructure. Such a proportional taxation strategy seeks to prevent undue government intervention in people’s finances, thereby fostering an environment conducive to economic growth and prosperity.
The State Should Support Foreign Industrialists, Entrepreneurs and Local Industries to Ensure Fairness
अनभियोगश्चार्थिष्वागन्तूनामन्यत्रसभ्योपकारिभ्यः।
Anabhiyogaścārthiṣvāgantūnāmanyatrasabhyopakāribhyaḥ.72
The state should assist foreign industrialists and entrepreneurs impartially.
The government should foster a supportive environment for foreign industrialists and entrepreneurs seeking to establish businesses or operate within its jurisdiction. This includes ensuring transparent and fair laws that protect and guarantee equal treatment under the law. Incentives, such as tax breaks or subsidies, should be provided to attract foreign entrepreneurs and stimulate economic growth and job creation.
Political stability and a strong rule of law are necessary to create a secure environment for investments and to uphold contracts and agreements.
The state aims to drive economic growth, generate employment opportunities, transfer technology and expertise, and enhance integration into global markets. This approach not only contributes to overall economic development but also strengthens diplomatic and trade relations with other countries.
It is crucial for governments to safeguard national interests and support domestic industries against activities that undermine them. In economic policy, governments must ensure that enterprises and individuals contribute positively to the national economy and comply with established laws.
To achieve this, governments enact measures to shield domestic industries from unfair competition and practices that could impair their competitiveness. These measures target actions such as unfair trade practices and unethical business behaviour that could disadvantage domestic businesses.
Antinational Individuals Are a Threat to National Prosperity
ये च राष्ट्रोपरोधेन वृद्धिं कुर्वन्ति केचन।
तानेवानुम्रियेरंस्ते कुणपं कृमयो यथा ।।21।।
ye ca rāṣṭroparodhena vṛddhiṃ kurvanti kecana|
tānevānumriyeraṃste kuṇapaṃ kṛmayo yathā ||21||73
Those who seek to increase their fortune through unscrupulous means, harming and betraying their country, are like vermin feeding on a corpse.
Individuals who resort to unscrupulous methods to amass wealth not only compromise their integrity but also inflict harm upon their nation. This behaviour often involves deception, exploitation and betrayal, undermining the very fabric of society. By prioritizing their own interests, these anti-national individuals erode trust and foster an environment of greed and corruption.
Anti-national individuals are parasitic to society. Just as vermin thrive on decay, these unscrupulous people benefit from the suffering and decline of their country. Their actions contribute to a cycle of destruction, where the values of loyalty, duty and societal well-being are disregarded in favour of self-serving pursuits.
Ultimately, the pursuit of fortune through dishonest means not only jeopardizes national prosperity but also threatens the social cohesion and moral foundation of society. Such behaviour should be condemned, as it signifies a betrayal of the shared values and collective responsibility that bind individuals to their nation. These individuals should be punished harshly so that their actions become a deterrent for others.
Hindu Dharma and Philosophy Oppose Capitalist Exploitation
ये धनादपकर्षन्ति नरं स्वबलमास्थिताः।
ते धर्ममर्थं कामं च प्रमथ्नन्ति नरं च तम् ।।24।।
Ye dhanādapakarṣanti naraṃ svabalamāsthitāḥ
Te dharmamarthaṃ kāmaṃ ca pramathnanti naraṃ ca tam ।।24।।74
If a powerful person resorts to using their power to exploit another for their wealth, they not only devastate the victim but also undermine their dharma, artha and kama.
It reflects the profound Hindu ethos, emphasizing harmony between individual well-being and societal welfare. In this context, capitalist exploitation contradicts the principles of dharma, artha and kama. Exploiting others for personal gain harms victims and disrupts societal balance. Therefore, the state and society are responsible for ensuring justice and preventing exploitation, in line with the broader Hindu concept of societal welfare.
It is essential to emphasize that this viewpoint, which challenges and protects against capitalist exploitation, is rooted in a tradition that is at least five thousand years old. This ancient perspective contradicts the commonly held belief that opposition to capitalist exploitation began exclusively with European socialist and communist movements.
आपदेवास्य मरणात् पुरुषस्य गरीयसी।
श्रियोविनाशस्तद्ध्यस्य निमित्तं धर्मकामयोः ।।27।।
Āpadevāsya maraṇāt puruṣasya garīyasī.
Śriyovināśastaddhyasya nimittaṃ dharmakāmayoḥ ।।27।।75
For a person, the destruction of prosperity is a worse calamity than death, as prosperity is the source of dharma and kama.
एतामवस्थां प्राप्यैके मरणं वव्रिरे जनाः।
ग्रामायैके वनायैके नाष्ठायैके प्रवव्रजुः ।।25।।
Etāmavasthāṃ prāpyaike maraṇaṃ vavrire janāḥ.
Grāmāyaike vanāyaike nāṣṭṭhāyaike pravavrajuḥ ।।25।।76
In the state of poverty, a poor person may prefer death; some escape to the forest, while others wander around, seeking to destroy themselves.
From an individual perspective, the collapse of prosperity is often perceived as a profound tragedy, sometimes even surpassing the fear of death itself. This is because prosperity is seen as the source of dharma and kama. When someone is plunged into poverty, they may find themselves viewing death as a preferable option. Some may retreat to the solitude of forests, while others wander aimlessly, perhaps seeking an end to their suffering.
This sentiment reflects the fundamental values of Hindu thought, which emphasize the interconnectedness of personal fulfilment and the well-being of the community. In this economic framework, the exploitative nature of capitalism directly contradicts the foundational Hindu principles of dharma, artha and kama. It suggests that when individuals exploit others solely for their own gain, they not only harm the victim but also disrupt the balance of society itself.
Therefore, it becomes imperative for the state to uphold justice and prevent such exploitation, aligning with the overarching Hindu principle of societal welfare. This underscores the idea that societal harmony is contingent upon the fair and equitable treatment of all individuals.
The discussion covered the importance of wealth creation, taxation and the protection of prosperity, as well as state policies related to these areas. Furthermore, the following is a description of Ayodhya, illustrating how a prosperous state is depicted in ancient Hindu historical texts.
Valmiki Described the Prosperity of the State of Kosala and the City of Ayodhya
कोशलो नाम मुदितः स्फीतो जनपदो महान्।
निविष्टः सरयूतीरे प्रभूतधनधान्यवान् ।।5।।
Kośalo nāma muditaḥ sphīto janapado mahān.
Niviṣṭaḥ sarayūtīre prabhūtadhanadhānyavān ।।5।।77
The large state of Kosala extends along the banks of the Saryu River. It is happy and prosperous, filled with abundant riches and plenty.
अयोध्या नाम नगरी तत्रासील्लोकविश्रुता ।।6।।
Ayodhyā nāma nagarī tatrāsīllokaviśrutā ।।6।।78
Its territory includes the world-renowned city by the name of Ayodhya.
आयता दश च द्वे च योजनानि महापुरी।
श्रीमती त्रीणि विस्तीर्णा सुविभक्तमहापथा ।।7।।
Āyatā daśa ca dve ca yojanāni mahāpurī.
Śrīmatī trīṇi vistīrṇā suvibhaktamahāpathā ।।7।।79
The great and glorious city of Ayodhya, with its well-aligned roads, is twelve yojanas (ninety-six miles) long and three yojanas (twenty-four miles) wide.
राजामार्गेण महता सुविभक्तेन शोभिता।
मुक्तपुष्पावकीर्णेन जलसिक्तेन नित्यशः ।।8।।
Rājāmārgeṇa mahatā suvibhaktena śobhitā.
Muktapuṣpāvakīrṇena jalasiktena nityaśaḥ ।।8।।80
Ayodhya is graced with a beautifully ramified extensive highway, which is daily sprinkled with water all along.
कपाटतोरणवर्तीं सुविभक्तान्तरापणाम्।
सर्वयन्त्रायुधवतीमुषिता सर्वशिल्पिभिः।।10।।
Kapāṭatoraṇavartīṃ suvibhaktāntarāpaṇām.
Sarvayantrāyudhavatīmuṣitā sarvaśilpibhiḥ ।।8।।81
Ayodhya features an arched gateway with beautiful doors, well-laid-out markets and a diverse population of craftsmen from all classes, all while being equipped with various types of weapons.
सूतमागधसम्बाधां श्रीमतीमतुलप्रभाम्।
उच्चाट्टालध्वजवतीं शतघ्नीशतसंकुलाम् ।।11।।
Sūtamāgadhasambādhāṃ śrīmatīmatulaprabhām.
Uccāṭṭāladhvajavatīṃ śataghnīśatasaṃkulām ।।11।।82
Ayodhya, filled with panegyrists and bards, is prosperous and possesses matchless splendour, marked by towering buildings and flags, and equipped with a myriad of weapons and numerous cannons.
तस्मिन् पुरवरे हृष्टा धर्मात्मानो बहुश्रुताः।
नरास्तुष्टा धनैः स्वैः स्वैरलुब्धाः सत्यवादिनः ।।6।।
Tasmin puravare hṛṣṭā dharmātmāno bahuśrutāḥ.
Narāstuṣṭā dhanaiḥ svaiḥ svairalubdhāḥ satyavādinaḥ ।।6।।83
The people of Ayodhya are happy, virtuous, learned, free from greed, truthful and content with their own fortune.
The ancient text’s description of Ayodhya paints a vivid picture of a thriving, well-organized city with a peaceful and harmonious atmosphere. The city boasts a grand design, with spacious areas and outstanding infrastructure, including well-planned streets, wide highways and a skilled, diverse population. Its residents are depicted as virtuous, knowledgeable and satisfied, contributing to the city’s overall atmosphere of tranquillity and prosperity.
Appendix 1
World Economic History
Professor Angus Maddison’s extraordinary study of world economic history presents the following statistics:
(Per Cent of World Total)
| Year | 0 | 1000 | 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | 1820 | 1870 | 1913 | 1950 | 1973 | 1998 |
|---|
| Austria | | | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
| Belgium | | | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.6 |
| Denmark | | | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
| Finland | | | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| France | | | 4.4 | 4.7 | 5.7 | 5.5 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 4.1 | 4.3 | 3.4 |
| Germany | | | 3.3 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 3.8 | 6.5 | 8.8 | 5.0 | 5.9 | 4.3 |
| Italy | | | 4.7 | 4.4 | 3.9 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 3.6 | 3.0 |
| Netherlands | | | 0.3 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 1.1 | 0.9 |
| Norway | | | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Sweden | | | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.7 | 0.5 |
| Switzerland | | | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5 |
| United Kingdom | | | 1.1 | 1.8 | 2.9 | 5.2 | 9.1 | 8.3 | 6.5 | 4.2 | 3.3 |
| 12 Countries Total | | | 15.5 | 17.2 | 19.5 | 20.9 | 30.7 | 31.1 | 24.1 | 22.8 | 17.9 |
| Portugal | | | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
| Spain | | | 1.9 | 2.1 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.7 |
| Other | | | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.7 |
| Total Western Europe | 10.8 | 8.7 | 17.9 | 19.9 | 22.5 | 23.6 | 33.6 | 33.5 | 26.3 | 25.7 | 20.6 |
| Eastern Europe | 1.9 | 2.2 | 2.5 | 2.7 | 2.9 | 3.3 | 4.1 | 4.5 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 2.0 |
| Former USSR | 1.5 | 2.4 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 4.4 | 5.4 | 7.6 | 8.6 | 9.6 | 9.4 | 3.4 |
| United States | | | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 1.8 | 8.9 | 19.1 | 27.3 | 22.0 | 21.9 |
| Other Western Offshoots | | | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 2.5 | 3.4 | 3.2 | 3.1 |
| Total Western Offshoots | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 1.9 | 10.2 | 21.7 | 30.6 | 25.3 | 25.1 |
| Mexico | | | 1.3 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.7 | 1.9 |
| Other Latin America | | | 1.7 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.3 | 2.0 | 3.5 | 6.7 | 7.0 | 6.8 |
| Total Latin America | 2.2 | 3.9 | 2.9 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 4.5 | 7.9 | 8.7 | 8.7 |
| Japan | 1.2 | 2.7 | 3.1 | 2.9 | 4.1 | 3.0 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 3.0 | 7.7 | 7.7 |
| China | 26.2 | 22.7 | 25.0 | 29.2 | 22.3 | 32.9 | 17.2 | 8.9 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 11.5 |
| India | 32.9 | 28.9 | 24.5 | 22.6 | 24.4 | 16.0 | 12.2 | 7.6 | 4.2 | 3.1 | 5.0 |
| Other Asia | 16.1 | 16.0 | 12.7 | 11.2 | 10.9 | 7.3 | 6.6 | 5.4 | 6.8 | 8.7 | 13.0 |
| Total Asia (excluding Japan) | 75.1 | 67.6 | 62.1 | 62.9 | 57.6 | 56.2 | 36.0 | 21.9 | 15.5 | 16.4 | 29.5 |
| Africa | 6.8 | 11.8 | 7.4 | 6.7 | 6.6 | 4.5 | 3.6 | 2.7 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 3.1 |
| World | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Table 1: Shares of World GDP, 20 Countries and Regional Totals, 0–1998 ad.84
‘The prosperity of Bharat, as per statistics, was primarily created by Hindus. At the beginning of the century, Bharat alone accounted for 32.9% of the world GDP. By around 1000 ce, this figure had decreased to 28.9%. Between 1000 and 1500 ce, it further declined to 24.9%, and from 1500 to 1700 ce, it stood at 24.4%.’85
Appendix 2
The British Exploitation and Plunder of Bharat’s Economy during the Colonial Period
The analysis is primarily based on two sources: The Case for India by Will Durant and The Economic History of India by Romesh Chunder Dutt, which explore why Hindu civilization became impoverished.
The British nation had spent millions of their own money in acquiring dominions in other parts of the world; but in India an empire had been acquired, wars had been waged, and the administration had been carried on, at the cost of the Indian people; the British nation had not contributed a shilling.86
***
Those who have seen the unspeakable poverty and physiological weakness of the Hindus today will hardly believe that it was the wealth of eighteenth-century India which attracted the commercial pirates of England and France.
This wealth was created by the Hindus’ vast and varied industries. Nearly every kind of manufacture or product known to the civilized world-nearly every kind of creation of Man’s brain and hand, existing anywhere, and prized either for its utility or beauty-had long, long been produced in India. India was a far greater industrial and manufacturing nation than any in Europe or than any other in Asia. Her textile goods- the fine product of her looms, in cotton, wool, linen and silk-were famous over the civilized world; so her exquisite jewellery and her precious stones cut in every lovely form; so were her pottery, porcelains, ceramics of every kind, quality, colour and beautiful shape; so were her fine works in metal-iron, steel, silver and gold. She had great architecture-equal in beauty to any in the world. She had great businessman, great bankers and financiers. Not only was she the greatest ship-building nation, but she had great commerce and trade by land and sea which extended to all known civilized countries.
[India in Bondage: Her Right to Freedom, J.T. Sunderland]
It was this wealth that the East India Company proposed to appropriate. Already in 1686 its Directors declared their intention to ‘establish … a large, well-grounded, sure English dominion in India for all time to come’. The company rented from the Hindu authorities’ trading posts at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, and fortified them, without permission of the authorities, with troops and cannon. Robert Clive defeated the Bengal forces at Plassey … and thereupon declared his Company the owner of the richest province in India. He added further territory by forging and violating treaties, by playing one native prince against another, and by generous bribes given and received. Four million dollars were sent down the river to Calcutta in one shipment. He accepted ‘presents’ amounting to $1,170,000 from Hindu rulers dependent upon his favour and his guns; pocketed from them, in addition, an annual tribute of $140,000; took to opium, was investigated and exonerated by Parliament and killed himself. ‘When I think’, he said, ‘of the marvelous riches of that country, and the comparatively small part which I took away, I am astonished at my own moderation’. Such were the morals of the men who proposed to bring civilization to India.
His successors in the management of the Company now began a century of unmitigated rape on the resources of India. They profiteered without hindrance: goods which they sold in England for $10,000,000 they bought for $2,000,000 in India. They engaged, corporately and individually, in inland trade, and by refusing to pay the tolls exacted of Hindu traders, acquired a lucrative monopoly. The company paid such fabulous dividends that its stock rose to $32,000 a share. Its agents deposed and set up Hindu rulers according to bribes refused or received; in ten years they took in, through such presents, $30,000,000. They forged documents as circumstances required, and hanged Hindus for forging documents. Clive had set up Mir Jafar as ruler of Bengal for $6,192,875; Clive’s successors deposed him and set up Mir Kasim on payment of $1,001,345; three years later they restored Mir Jafar for $2,500,825; two years later they replaced him with Najim-ud-Daula for $1,151,780. They taxed the provinces under the Company so exorbitantly that two-thirds of the population fled; defaulters were confined in cages and exposed to the burning sun; fathers sold their children to meet rising rates. It was usual to demand 50% of the net produce of the land. ‘Every effort, lawful and unlawful,’ says a Bombay Administration report, written by Englishmen, ‘was made to get the utmost out of the wretched peasantry, who were subjected to torture, in some instances cruel and revolting beyond all description, if they would not or could not yield what was demanded.’ Warren Hastings exacted contributions as high as a quarter of a million dollars from native princes to the treasury of the Company; he accepted bribes to exact no more, exacted more and annexed the states that could not pay; he allowed his agents to use torture in extorting contributions; he helped the Nawab of Oudh to rob his mother and grandmother in order to pay the Company $5,000,000; he occupied the province of Oudh with his army, captured it and then sold it to a prince for $2,500,000; he ‘lent’ a British army to a Hindu rajah for $2,000,000 and made no complaint when it was used to slaughter and be slaughtered for savage purpose. ‘Everybody and everything’, says the Oxford History of India ‘was on sale’. And [T.B.] Macaulay writes:
During the five years which followed the departure of Clive from Bengal, the misgovernment of the English was carried to such a point as seemed incompatible with the existence of society…. The servants of the Company … forced the natives to buy dear and to sell cheap…. Enormous fortunes were thus rapidly accumulated at Calcutta, while thirty millions of human beings were reduced to the extremity of wretchedness. They had been accustomed to live under tyranny, but never under tyranny like this…. Under their old masters they had at least one resource: when the evil became insupportable, the people rose and pulled down the government. But the English Government was not to be so shaken off. That government, oppressive as the most oppressive form of barbarian despotism, was strong with all the strength of civilization.
By 1858 the crimes of the Company so smelled to heaven that the British Government took over the captured and plundered territories as a colony of the Crown; a little island took over half a continent. England paid the Company handsomely, and added the purchase price to the public debt of India, to be redeemed, principal and interest (originally at 10 and half per cent), out of the taxes put upon the Hindu people. All the debts on the Company’s books, together with the obligations of India, to be redeemed out of the taxes put upon the Hindu people. Exploitation was dressed now in all the forms of Law, i.e the rules laid down by the victors for the vanquished. Hypocrisy was added to brutality, while the robbery went on.87
***
The expropriation of state after state from the native rulers by the war or bribery, or the simple decree of Lord Dalhousie that whenever a Hindu prince died without leaving a direct heir, his territory should pass to the British; in Dalhousie’s administration alone, eight states were absorbed in this peaceful way. Province after province was taken over by offering its ruler a choice between a pension and war. In the seventh decade of the nineteenth century, England added 4,000 square miles to her Indian territory; in the eighth decade, 15,000 square miles; in the ninth, 90,000; in the tenth, 133,000. John Morley estimated that during the nineteenth century alone England carried on one hundred and eleven wars in India, using for the most part Indian troops; millions of Hindus shed their blood that India might be slave. The cost of these wars for the conquest of India was met to the last penny out of Indian taxes; the English congratulated themselves on conquering India without spending a cent. Certainly it was a remarkable, if not a magnanimous, achievement, to steal in forty years a quarter of a million square miles, and make the victims pay every penny of the expense. When at last in 1857 the exhausted Hindus resisted, they were suppressed with ‘medieval ferocity’; a favourite way of dealing with captured rebels was to blow them to bits from the mouths of cannon. ‘We took’, said the London Spectator, ‘at least 100,000 Indian lives in the mutiny’. This is what the English call the Sepoy Mutiny, and what the Hindus call the War of Independence. There is much in a name.
Let Englishmen describe the result. A report to the House of Commons by one of its investigating committees in 1804 stated: ‘It must give pain to an Englishman to think that since the accession of the Company the condition of the people of India has been worse than before’. In 1826 the English Bishop Heber wrote: ‘The peasantry in the Company’s provinces are, on the whole, worse off, poorer, and more dispirited, than the subjects of the Native Princes… I met with very few men who will not, in confidence, own their belief that the people are overtaxed, and that the country is in a gradual state of impoverishment.’ James Mill, historian of India, wrote: ‘Under their dependence upon the British Government … the people of Oudh and Karnatic, two of the noblest provinces of India, were, by misgovernment, plunged into a state of wretchedness with which … hardly any part of the earth has anything to compare.’ ‘I conscientiously believe’, said Lt Col. Briggs in 1830, ‘that under no Government whatever, Hindu or Mohammedan, professing to be actuated by law, was any system so suppressive of the prosperity of the people at large as that which has marked our administration’. F.J. Shore, British administrator in Bengal, testified as follows to the follows to the House of Commons in 1857:
The fundamental principle of the English has been to make the whole Indian nation subservient, in every possible way, to the interests and benefits of themselves. They have been taxed to the utmost limit; every successive province, as it has fallen into our possession, has been made a field for higher exaction; and it has always been our boast how greatly we have raised the revenue above that which the native rulers were able to extort. The Indians have been excluded from every honor, dignity or office which the lowest Englishman could be prevailed upon to accept.
Such was the method of the British acquisition of India; this is the origin of the British claim to rule India today.88
***
Economic Destruction
The economic condition of India is the inevitable corollary of its political exploitation.
Even the casual traveler perceives the decay of agriculture (which absorbs 85% of the people), and the destitution of the peasant. He sees the Hindu riot in the rich fields, wading almost naked in the mud of a foreign tyrant’s land; his loin-cloth is all the finery that he has. In 1915, the Statistical Department of Bengal, the most prosperous of India’s provinces, calculated the average wage of the able-bodied agricultural laborer to be $3.60 per month. His hut is roofed with straw; or it is a square of dried mud adorned with a cot of entire house and furnishings of a family of six, including all newspapers or books, entertainments, tobacco, or drink. Almost half his earnings go to the Government; and if he cannot pay the tax, his holdings, which may have been in his family for centuries, is confiscated by the state.
If he is fortunate he escapes from the overtaxed land and takes refuge in the cities. Provided there are not too many other applicants, he may get work in Delhi, the capital of India, carrying away the white master’s excrement; sanitary facilities are unnecessary when slaves are cheap. Or he can go to the factory, and become, if he is very lucky, one of the 1,409,000 ‘hands’ of India. He will find difficulty in getting a place, for 33% of the factory workers are women, and 8% are children. In the mines 34% of the employees are women, of whom one-half work underground; 16% of the miners are children. In the cotton mills of Bombay the heat is exhausting, and the lungs are soon destroyed by the fluff-laden air; men work there until they reach a subsistence wage, and then their health breaks down. More than half the factories use their employees fifty-four hours a week. The average wage of the factory workers is sixty to seventy cents a day; though allowance must be made for the inferior skill and strength of the Hindu as compared with the European or American labourer long trained in the ways of machines. In Bombay, in 1922, despite the factory acts of that year, the average wage of the cotton workers was 33 cents. In that same year the profit of the better years, the owners of those mills was 125%. This was an ‘off-year’. The workman’s home is like his wage; usually it consists of one room, shared by the family with various animals; Zimand found one room with thirty tenants. Such is the industrial revolution that a British government has allowed to develop under its control, despite the example of enlightened legislation in America and England.
The people flock to the factories because the land cannot support them; and the land cannot support them because it is overtaxed, because it is overpopulated, and because the domestic industries with which the peasants formerly eked out in winter their gleanings from the summer fields, have been destroyed by British control of Indian tariffs and trade. For of old the handicrafts of India were known throughout the world; it was manufactured, i.e., hand-made-goods which European merchants brought from India to sell to the West. In 1680, says the British historian Orme, the manufacture of cotton was almost universal in India, and the busy spinning wheels enabled the women to round out the earnings of their men. But the English in India objected to this competition of domestic industry with their mills at home; they resolved that India should be reduced to a purely agricultural country, and be forced in consequences to become a vast market for British machine-made goods. The Directors of the East India Company gave orders that the production of raw silk should be discouraged; that silk-winders should be compelled to work in the Company’s factories, and be prohibited, under severe penalties, from working outside. Parliament discussed ways and means of replacing Hindu by British industries. A tariff of 70-80% was placed upon Hindu textiles imported into free trade England, while India was compelled, by foreign control of her government, to admit English textiles almost duty free. Lest Indian industries should nevertheless continue somehow to exist, an excise tax was placed on the manufacture of cotton goods in India. As a British historian puts it:
It is a melancholy instance of the wrong done to India by the country on which she has become dependent. Had India been independent, she would have retaliated, would have imposed prohibitive duties upon British goods, and would thus have preserved her own productive industry form annihilation. This act of self-defence was not permitted her; she was at the mercy of the stranger. British goods were forced upon her without paying any duty, and the foreign manufacturer employed the arm of political injustice to keep down and ultimately strangle a competitor with whom he could not have contended on equal terms.
And another Englishman wrote:
We have done everything possible to impoverish still further the miserable beings subject to the cruel selfishness of English commerce. Under the pretense of free trade, England has compelled the Hindus to receive the products of the steam-looms of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Glasgow, etc., at merely nominal duties; while the hand wrought manufactures of Bengal and Behar, beautiful in fabric and durable in wear, have heavy and almost prohibitive duties imposed on their importation into England.
The result was that Manchester and Paisley flourished, and Indian industries declined; a country well on the way to prosperity was forcibly arrested in its development, and compelled to be only a rural hinterland for industrial England. The mineral wealth abounding in India’s soil was not explored, for no competition with England was to be allowed. The millions of skilled artisans whom Indian handicrafts had maintained were added to the hundreds of millions who sought support from the land. ‘India’, says Kohn, ‘was transformed into a purely agricultural country, and her people lived perpetually on the verge of starvation.’ The vast population which might have been comfortably supported by a combination of tillage and industry became too great for the arid soil; and India was reduced to such penury that to-day nothing is left of her men, her women and her children but empty stomachs and fleshless bones.
It might have been supposed that the building of 30,000 miles of railways would have brought a measure of prosperity to India. But these railways were built not for India but for England; not for the benefit of the Hindu, but for the purposes of the British army and British trade. If this seems doubtful, observe their operation. Their greatest revenue comes, not, as in America, from the transport of goods (for the British trader controls the rates), but from the third-class passengers-----the Hindus; but these passengers are herded into almost barren coaches like animals bound for the slaughter, twenty or more in one compartment. The railroads are entirely in European hands, and the Government has refused to appoint even one Hindu to the Railway Board. The railways lose money year after year, and are helped by the Government out of the revenues of the people; these loans to date total over $100,000,000. The Government guarantees of a minimum rate to built the roads ran no risk whatever. No play or encouragement is given to initiative, completion or private enterprise; the worst evils of a state monopoly are in force. All the losses are borne by the people; all the gains are gathered by the trader. So much for the railways.
Commerce on the sea is monopolized by the British, even more than transport on land. The Hindus are not permitted to organize a merchant marine of their own; all Indian goods must be carried in British bottoms, as an additional strain on the starving nation’s purse; and the buildings of ships, which once gave employment to thousands of Hindus, is prohibited.
To this running of the land with taxation, this ruining of industry with tariffs and this ruining of commerce with foreign control, add the drainage of millions upon millions of dollars from India year after year, and the attempt to explain India’s poverty as the result of her superstitions becomes a dastardly deception practiced upon a world too busy to be well informed. This drain having been denied, it is only necessary to state the facts, and to introduce them with a quotation from a document privately addressed by the British government in India to the Parliament of England.
Great Britain, in addition to the tribute which she makes India pay her through the customs, derives benefits from the savings of the service of the three presidencies (the provinces Calcutta, Madras and Bombay) being spent in England instead of in India; and in addition to these savings, which probably amount to $500,000,000, she derives benefit from the fortunes realized by the European mercantile community, which are all remitted to England.
This is a general statement, let us fill it in. Consider first the drain on India through trade. Not merely is this carried in British ships; far worse than that, there is an astounding surplus of exports over imports. In the happy years of the Company there were such balances as $30,000,000 exports and $30,000,000 imports; latterly the indecency has been reduced, and the excess of goods taken from India over goods brought into India is now a moderate one-third. In 1927, e.g., imports were $651,600,000, exports were $892,800,000; the excess of exports $241,200,000. Where goes the money that pays for this excess? We are asked to believe that it takes the form of silver or gold imported and hoarded by the Hindus; but no man that has seen their poverty can believe so shameless a myth. Doubtless there is some hoarding, above all by the native princes, for India cannot be expected to put full faith in a banking system controlled by foreign masters. But it is the officials, the merchants and the manufacturers (most of whom are British) who take the great bulk of this profit, and return it to their countries in one form or another. As an East Indian merchant said in a Parliamentary report in 1853, when this process of bleeding was on a comparatively modest scale: ‘Generally up to 1847, the imports were about $30,000,000 and the exports about $47,500,000. The difference is the tribute which the Company received from the country.’
Consider, second, the drain through fortunes, dividends and profits made in India and spent abroad. The British come as officials or soldiers or traders; they make their money and return to Great Britain. Let an Englishman, Edmund Burke, proportion to the growth of British positions, manufactures and commerce in India.
They have no more social habits with the people than if they still resided in England; nor indeed any species of intercourse but that which is necessary to make a sudden fortune. Animated with all the avarice of age, and all the impetuosity of youth, they roll in one after another; wave after wave, and there is nothing before the eyes of the natives but an endless, hopeless prospect of new flights of birds of prey and passage, with appetites continually renewing for a food that is continually wasting. Every rupee of profit made by an Englishman is lost forever to India.
Consider, third, the drain through salaries and pensions derived from India and spent abroad. In 1927 Lord Winterton showed, in the House of Commons, that there were then some 7,500 retired officials in Great Britain drawing annually $17,500,000 in pensions from the Indian revenue; Ramsay MacDonald put the figure at $20,000,000 a year. When England, which is almost as over-populated as Bengal, sends its sons to India, she requires of them twenty-four years of service, reduced by four years of furloughs; she then retires them for life on a generous pension, paid by the Hindu people. Even during their service these officials send their families or their children to live for the most part in England; and they support them there with funds derived from India. Almost everything bought by the British in India, except the more perishable foods, is purchased from abroad. A great proportion of the funds appropriated for supplies by the Government of India is spent in England.
As early as 1783, Edmund Burke predicted that the annual drain of Indian resources to England without equivalent return would eventually destroy India. From Plassey to Waterloo, fifty-seven years the drain of India’s wealth to England is computed by Brooks Adams at two-and-a-half to five billion dollars. He adds, what Macaulay suggested long ago, that it was this stolen wealth from India which supplied England with free capital for the development of mechanical inventions, and so made possible the Industrial Revolution. In 1901 Dutt estimated that one half of the net revenues of India flowed annually out of the country, never to return. In 1906 Mr. Hyndman reckoned the drain at $40,000,000 a year. A.J. Wilson valued it at one-tenth of the total annual production of India. Montgomery Martin, estimating the drain at $15,000,000 year in 1838, calculated that these annual sums, retained and gathering interest in India, would amount in half a century to $40,000,000,000. Though it may seem merely spectacular to juggle such figures, it is highly probable that the total wealth drained from India since 1757, if it had all been left and invested in India, would now amount, at a low rate of interest, to $400,000,000,000. Allow for money reinvested in India, and a sum remains easily equivalent to the difference between the poorest and the richest nations in the world. The same high rate of taxation which has bled India to perhaps a mortal weakness, might have done her no permanent injury if the wealth so taken had all been returned into the economy and circulation of the country; but bodily withdrawn from her as so much of it was, it has acted like a long-continued transfusion of vital blood. ‘So great an economic drain out of the resources of the land’, says Dutt, ‘would impoverish the most prosperous countries on earth; it has reduced India to a land of famines more frequent, more widespread and more fatal, than any known before in the history of India, or of the world.’89
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Over-Taxation on the Hindu by the British Administration
In England, the Land Tax was between one shilling and four shillings in the pound, i.e., between 5 and 20 per cent of the rental, during a hundred years before 1798, when it was made perpetual and redeemable by William Pitt. In Bengal the Land Tax was fixed at over 90 per cent of the rental and in Northern India at over 80 per cent of the rental between 1793 and 1882. It is true that British Government only followed the precedent of the previous Mahomedan rulers, who also claimed an enormous Land Tax. But the difference was this that what the Mahomedan rulers claimed they could never fully realize; what the British rulers claimed they realized with rigour. The Mahomedan ruler of Bengal, in the last year of his administration (1764), realized a land revenue of Sterling Pound 817,553; within thirty years the British rulers realized a land revenue of Sterling Pound 2,680,000 in the same province. In 1802, the Nawab of Oudh ceded Allahabad and some other rich districts in Northern India to the British Government. The land revenue which had been claimed by the Nawab in these ceded districts was Sterling Pound 1,352,347; the land revenue which was claimed by the British rulers within three years of the cession was Sterling Pound 1,682,306. In Madras, the Land Tax first imposed by the East India Company was one-half the gross produce of the Land! In Bombay, the land revenue of the territory conquered from the Mahrattas in 1817 was Sterling Pound 800,000 in the year of the conquest; it was raised to Sterling Pound 1,500,000 within a few years of British rule; and it has been continuously raised since. ‘No Native Prince demands the rent which we do’, wrote Bishop Heber in 1826, after travelling all through India, and visiting British and Native States. ‘A Land Tax like that which now exists in India,’ wrote Colonel Briggs in 1830, ‘professing to absorb the whole of the landlord’s rent, was never known under any Government in Europe or Asia’.
In Madras and Bombay, things are worse. There the Land Tax is paid generally by the cultivators of the soil, there being, in most parts of those provinces, no intervening landlords. The British Government declared its intention in 1864 of realizing as Land Tax about one-half of the economic rent. But what the British Government does take as Land Tax at the present day sometimes approximates to the whole of the economic rent, leaving the cultivators little beyond the wages of their labour and the profits of their agricultural stock. The Land Tax is revised once every thirty years; the cultivator does not know on what grounds it is enhanced: he has to submit to each renewed assessment, or to leave his ancestral fields and perish. This uncertainty of the Land Tax paralyses agriculture, prevents saving and keeps the tiller of the soil in a state of poverty and indebtedness.
Taxation raised by a king, says the Indian poet, is like the moisture of the earth sucked up by the sun, to be returned to the earth as fertilizing rain; but the moisture raised from the Indian soil now descends as fertilizing rain largely on other lands, not on India.
They bought their merchandise out of the revenues of India, and sold it in Europe for their own profit. They vigorously exacted from India a high interest on their stock-in-trade. In one shape or another all that could be raised in India by an excessive taxation flowed to Europe, after paying for a starved administration.
The East India Company’s trade was abolished in 1833, and the Company was abolished in 1858, but their policy remains. Their capital was paid off by loans which were made into an Indian Debt, on which interest is paid from Indian taxes. The empire was transferred from the Company to the Crown, but the people of India paid the purchase money. The Indian Debt which was Sterling Pound 51,000,000 in 1857, rose to Sterling Pound 97,000,000 in 1862. Within the forty years of peace which have succeeded, the Indian Debt has increased continuously, and now (1901) amounts to Sterling Pound 200,000,000. The ‘Home Charges’ remitted annually out of the Indian revenues to Great Britain haveincreased to sixteen millions. The pay of European officers in India, virtually monopolizing all the higher services, comes to ten millions. One-half of the net revenues of India, which are now forty-four millions sterling, flows annually out of India. Verily the moisture of India blesses and fertilizes other lands.90
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Sir Wilfred Seawen Blunt sums it up from the point of view of a true Englishman:
India’s famines have been severe and more frequent, its agricultural poverty has deepened, its rural population has become more hopelessly in debt, their despair more desperate. The system of constantly enhancing the land values (i.e. raising the valuation and assessment) has not been altered. The salt tax … still robs the very poor. What was bad twenty-five years ago is worse now. At any rate there is the same drain of India’s food to alien mouths. Endemic famines and endemic plagues are facts no official statistics can explain away. Though myself a good Conservative… I own to being shocked at the bondage in which the Indian people are held; … and I have come to the conclusion that if we go on developing the country at the present rate, the inhabitants, sooner or later, will have to resort to cannibalism, for there will be nothing left for them to eat.91
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By a moderate calculation, the famines of 1877 and 1878, of 1889 and 1892, of 1897 and 1900, have carried off fifteen millions of people. The population of a fair-sized European country has been swept away from India within twenty-five years. A population equal to half of that of England has perished in India within a period which men and women, still in middle age, can remember.92
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The very year of the Queen’s accession revealed the vast difficulties of Indian administration. Famines had followed the wars of Lord Wellesley in Bombay and northern India in 1803 and 1804; a fresh famine has occurred in 1813; and Madras, with her wretched and oppressive land settlements, had been afflicted by famines in 1807, 1823, 1833. And now in the first year of the Queen’s reign, Northern India, suffering equally from oppressive land settlements, was desolated by a famine more intense and more widespread than any of the preceding famines of the century. The new settlement of Robert Merttins Bird had not yet been completed; the people were resourceless and in chronic indebtedness, and a failure of rains in 1837 brought on the disastrous famine.
‘I have never in my life,’ wrote John Lawrence, afterwards Lord Lawrence, ‘seen such utter desolation as that which is now spread over the parganas of Hodal and Palwal.’ Deaths were numerous and were never reckoned. In Cawnpur a special establishment patrolled the streets and the river to remove the corpses. In Fatehpur and Agra, similar measures were adopted. Hundreds of thousands died in obscure villages, unknown and unheeded. The dead lay on the road-side unburied and unburnt, till they were devoured by wild animals.93
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya’s Notes in Indian Industrial Commission, 191694
‘The skill of the Indians’, says Professor Weber, ‘in the production of delicate woven fabrics, in the mixing of colours, the working of metals and precious stones, the preparation of essences and in all manner of technical arts, has from early times enjoyed a world-wide celebrity.’ There is evidence that Babylon traded with India in 3000 bc. Mummies in Egyptian tombs, dating from 2000 bc, have been found wrapped in Indian muslin of the finest quality. ‘There was a very large consumption of Indian manufactures in Rome. This is confirmed by the elder Pliny, who complained that vast sums of money were annually absorbed by commerce with India.’ ‘The muslins of Dacca were known to the Greeks under the name of Gangetika…. Thus it may be safely concluded that in India the arts of cotton spinning and cotton weaving were in a high state of proficiency two thousand years ago … cotton weaving was only introduced into England in the seventeenth century”. [Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume III, page 195] p. 6.
As regards iron manufactures, Prof. Wilson says: ‘Casting iron is an art that is practiced this manufacturing country (England) only within a few years. The Hindus have the art of smelting iron, of welding it, and of making steel, and have had these arts from time immemorial.’ p. 6.95
Mr. Ranade wrote in 1892:96
The iron industry not only supplied all local wants but it also enabled India to export its finished products to foreign countries. The quality of the material turned out had also a world-wide fame. The famous Iron Pillar near Delhi, which is at least fifteen hundred years old, indicates an amount of skill in the manufacture of wrought iron, which has been the marvel of all who have endeavoured to account for it. Mr. Ball (late of the Geological Survey of India) admits that it is not many years since the production of such a pillar would have been impossibility in the largest factories in the world, and, even now, there are comparatively very few factories where such a mass of metal could be turned out. Cannons were manufactured in Assam of the largest caliber, Indian wootz or steel furnished the materials out of which Damascus blades with a world-wide reputation were made; and it paid Persian merchants in those old times to travel all the way to India to obtain these materials and export them to Asia. The Indian steel found once considerable demand for cutlery even in England. This manufacture of steel and wrought iron had reached a high perfection at least two thousand years ago” [Ranade’s Essays on Indian Economics, pp. 169-160] pp. 6-7.
शत्रून् जय प्रजा रक्ष1
Śatrūn jaya prajā rakṣa
